http://www.religiousconsultation.org/Ammar_on_being_a_muslim_woman.htm
THE RELIGIOUS CONSULTATION
on
population, reproductive health & ethics
On Being A Muslim
Woman: Laws and Practices
By Nawal H. Ammar,
Ph.D.
Assistant Professor
Kent State University/Trumbull
Introduction: Finding Answers
One
of the main facets of my identity has been that of being a Muslim
woman. I was born into a family living in Cairo, Egypt, connected
to rural Islam through my father's family, and to urban Islam
through my mother's family who lived in Beirut, Lebanon. It was
this experience at home that lead me to recognize that, although
there is unity of text and history in the Islamic doctrine, the
diversity — including geography, technological acquisition,
culture, education, socio-economic status, and political
involvement — of Muslims contributes to variations in the their
way of life.
I
lived comfortably with this diversity. It was not strange that one
of my grandmothers wore the rural Egyptian head veil (Tarha),
while the other grandmother shed the veil during her twenties as a
symbolic gesture against the Ottoman rule. I remember having some
Egyptian Copts in my religion class who wanted to make an effort
to learn verses of the Qur'an like we did. I was no more than 9 or
10 and now, decades later, I still remember how impressed I was by
both my classmate Fouad (an Egyptian Copt) and our teacher who
allowed him to stay in class during religion instruction. I was
comfortable. I knew that I was a good Muslim. It was not, however,
until the Iranian revolution in 1979 that my comfort was called
into question and challenged.
I was
studying in England at that time, and I remember that my English
friends and teachers often challenged my knowledge of Islam. I
wrote an honors paper in my last year of college entitled "Islam:
a Religion and a Way of Life" that was called into question by the
professor because I ended by saying that Islam is a religion of
tolerance. For the longest time the image that the West had of my
religion pained me. I did not know what to do! Those people who
look so stern and violent in Iran (and elsewhere) are my
compatriots in religion, but I did not agree with their ways. I
finally decided to resolve this dilemma by going back to the holy
and historical texts and learn for myself. The following paper is
a summary of 6 issues that I have had to deal with in the U.S.
during the past 15 years. Four of the issues pertain directly to
women and two are important concepts that U.S. media and academe
have misrepresented and continue to misrepresent. These issues
are: 1) Who are the Muslims in today's world? 2); Is Jihad holy
war?; 3) Is Islam a religion for women?; 4) Does Islam prescribe
polygamy?; 5) Why aren't you veiled? 6) Why have some Muslims
boycotted the U.N. Population Conference in Cairo in 1993?
To Table of Contents
Sources of Islam
Before I proceed with my discussion of the six
issues that I have had to deal with as a Muslim woman in the U.S.
for the past 15 years, it is important to review the sources of
Islam on which I base this discussion. The Islamic paradigm as it
relates to the sacred and profane practices is based on
ontological rather than epistemological principles. In essence
Islamic behavior and moral codes are patterned and conditioned by
the existence of the revelation that was later compiled in the
form of the Book, the Holy Qur'an. The source of knowledge in the
Holy Qur'an is a given and not subject to empirical or other
testing procedures. The Muslims believe that the Holy Qur'an is
the uncreated words of God. These words were revealed to the
Prophet Muhammad in 610 A.D. and during a period of twenty three
years with some chapters revealed entirely at one time, while
others extended over many years. The revelations are divided into
Meccan and Medina because of the place they were revealed. The
Meccan revelations, generally, address more theological/religious
injunctions, while the Medina revelations address social,
political, economic and environmental practices. Although the
Prophet Muhammad organized the Book, the Holy Qur'an was not
committed to writing until 30 years after his death.
The
Qur'an is divided into 114 structures, each of which is called
Surah, section. The Surhas are of varying lengths, each is
divided further into smaller verses called Ayah. The fact
that the Qur'an represents the words of God forbids Muslims from
varying its organization and using the Qur'an except in its Arabic
origin. The revelation in Islam separated the "what" from the
"how" (al-Faruqi and al-Faruqi 1986:108). The what was God's
injunctions, and the how was the domain of humans. The what is
ultimate and absolute, while the human is changing and developing.
The
Qur'an is the highest religious and most absolute source in Islam.
There are, however, three other religious sources that guide the
religion. These are the Prophet's Sayings, Hadiths, the
Prophet's actions, Sunnah, and the jurists decisions,
Shariah.
Muslims are required to apply both the Hadiths and
Sunnah in their personal and social life. The Hadith began to
committed to writing 50 years after the death of the Prophet
Muhammad. A large number of Hadiths were fabricated through
the years. The struggle for succession provided the largest
opportunity for such fabrication. As a result a science of
Hadith (I'lm Al-hadith) developed to distinguish between sound
and false Hadiths. The science is based on verifying the
historical retrieval of the narration, Isnad, and the
content of the Hadith, Matin. Six anthologies were made
between 815-870 A.D.. Two of these collections by Bukhari and
Muslim are actually known as the "two sheiks". They examined
600,000 Hadith and found that 7225 were sound.
The
Prophet's actions, Sunnah, are not written, but is rather a
prally transmitted from generation to generation.
The
Shariah is the form of law that covers the ever changing
conditions and situations of human life. The science of Usul of
Fiqh (the origins of thought) was developed in the 8th century
to distinguish between the changeless and changing, and to develop
a methodology out of the relevant principles of the Qur'an, Hadith
and Sunnah.
The
new laws (Shariah) that develop in the face of a changing society
were derived from the spirit of the prescriptive revelation on the
basis of Ijma' and Qiyas. Ijma' consists of the agreement of all
jurists in any given period on a matter of law. Qiyas consists of
subsuming a new matter under an established law because of the
equivalence of the causes underlying them. To the two above
principles seven others were added to guarantee the dynamism of
the law with guarantees for the preeminence of these principles
and values.
The
Qur'an, the Hadith, Sunnah, and the Shariah determine the
parameters of knowledge and information in Islam. Hence, all legal
and ethical codes in Islam are based on foundations that are
formulated and passed on by God directly or by analogy.
Although in Islam God is the final judge, it is the public opinion
of the learned community that provides sanctions in this world.
Based on the texts Islam produces a system that stresses
compliance with textual rules or their derivations. Various grades
of rules are utilized for behavioral compliance. These are: 1)
obligatory 2) desirable or recommended, but not obligatory 3)
indifferent 4) disapproved 5) forbidden (Fellows 1979: 416).
It is
to these sources and their interpretations that I turn. The
following discussion thus uses the Qur'an, the Hadith and some
Shariah to address the questions at hand.
To Table of Contents
Issues and Questions
Who are the Muslims in Today's World?
I
have encountered the issue of who are the Muslims in today's world
in basically two ways. The first comes as a nomaclature or a
confusion in referring to the Muslims. Americans often use
"Muslim" and "Arab" as interchangeable terms as though they
referred to the same people. Such a confusion is the result of the
fact that Islam emerged in the 7th century A.D. in Mecca, in the
western part of the Arabian Peninsula. At the time most Muslims
were Arabs, but not all Arabs were Muslims. Today, Arabs account
for only 20% of the Muslims of the World, and a large number of
Arabs are Christians, Jews and atheists. Hence, using the terms
Arabs and Muslims as though the two were synonymous potentially
offends non-Arab Muslims and non-Muslim Arabs. Actually the only
certain, unalterable connection between Islam and the Arabs is
that Islam's sacred book, the Qur'an is an Arabic Book : "We have
brought forth for men in this Qur'an every kind of parable in
order that they may receive admonition. (it is) a Qur'an in
Arabic, without any crookedness (therein). In order that they may
guard against evil." (39:27-28).
(1)
A
second issue concerns who the Muslims are racially or ethnically.
The Americans in general are fascinated with the issue of race,
and the phenotypic diversity of Muslims has lead to numerous
questions about the race of Muslims. My answer to such a question
is that there are one billion Muslims in the world today who live
in more than 83 countries and speak more than 200
languages/dialects. As a result we cannot look at this vast number
of people as compromising a single ethnic or a racial group.
Muslims are not a homogeneous tribe. Actually the Qur'an
emphasizes this by stating:
Oh humankind! We
created you from a single soul, male and female, and made you
into nations and tribes, so that you may come to know one
another. Truly, the most honored of you in God's sight is the
greatest of you in piety" (49:13). [my emphasis]
Instead Muslims see themselves as a community because their belief
in one God. The Qur'an further explains this notion by saying:
"The Believers are but a single Brotherhood" (49:10). This
brotherhood has no single origin, actually the Qur'an takes pride
in God's creation of human diversity by stating: "And among His
signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth and the
variations in your languages, and your colors; verily in that are
Signs for those who know" (30:22). Muslims thus do not belong to
any one race or ethnic group. Muslims are a community of believers
that come from all races, colors, languages, and tribes. The
cementing factor in the Muslim community is belief in and
submission to the one God.
To Table of Contents
Is Jihad the Holy War?
Western media often associate Islam with violence and war.
Coverage of the recent political events (e.g., the Intifadah in
the Palestinian territories occupied by Israel since 1967, the
allied war with Iraq, and the World Trade Center bombing in New
York) have all cemented this association. The extent of negative
stereotyping of Muslims reached absurd levels in Howard Bloom's
1988 article in Omni magazine (reputed to publish
"scientific" papers) where he writes: "Islamic cultures, treat
their children harshly, they despise open displays of affection...
the result is violent adults" (page 30). Such media messages
pollute the minds of innocents who in turn maintain and perpetuate
these prejudices. One student of mine once said: "I have never
seen a peaceful Muslim, they all want to fight and kill". I asked
him: "How many Muslims do you know?" He paused and answered: "only
one, you". I then asked: "does this mean you think I am violent?"
He said: "No, but I see them on television".
An
accurate understanding of Islam's view of war and violence is
relevant not only for my American student and those who plan
international policy, but also for those who plan our domestic
political and cultural policy. Scholars estimate that there are
approximately 5 million Muslims living in the U.S. today. Also,
they project that by the year 2000 the Muslims will be the second
largest religious community living in the U.S.. "We can no longer
ignore Islam as a religion", said a Presbyterian minister to a
group of children, "you and your children will have Muslim
neighbors, Muslim classmates, Muslim co-workers and who knows you
may end marrying Muslim spouses". These demographic facts make any
discussion of Islam of central importance for the American
society's fabric and function.
One
of the most common questions I get asked is, "What is Islam's
approach to war? Is it really true that holy war, 'Jihad' is one
of the major tenants of Islam?"
The Meanings of Jihad
American media often associate the Arabic word "Jihad" with "holy
war". Nations with Muslim populations that are also at war are
then typically seen as being engaged in a "holy war"; hence, the
association of "Islam" with violence and war becomes easy. In
fact, the word Jihad carries the more general meaning of
"struggle" or "exerting effort". Jihad as "holy war"
expresses only one of many forms of struggle. The term Jihad
in Islam divides into two parts: major Jihad and minor
Jihad. The major Jihad is a struggle toward living a
pious life. This includes observing God's commandments, avoiding
sin, modesty, honesty, caring for aging parents, and opposing
injustice. The second mode of Jihad, the minor Jihad,
is the holy war. The Prophet Muhammad used to say upon his return
from battle: "We return from the minor Jihad to the major
Jihad".
Unlike Buddhism's non-violent struggle, Gandhi's concept of
non-harm or Christ's dictum "to turn the other cheek", Islam
considers war as a viable form of struggle against injustice or
oppression. This form of struggle, however, derives from the early
history of the Islamic community, and only operates under certain
conditions and protocol.
Non-Violence Before War
Muslims generally are enjoined to struggle in holy war to confront
injustice and oppression. One Qur'anic verse says: "and fight them
on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail
justice and faith in God, altogether and every where" (8: 39).
Fighting oppression is one important reason for a holy war, since
"tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter" (2: 191).
Nonetheless, war as a form of struggle in Islam, is seen as a last
resort. Persuasion and patience should first be employed as a form
of struggle. According to the Qur'an, first "invite (all) to the
way of thy lord with wisdom, and beautiful preaching and argue
with them in ways that are best and most gracious" (16: 127). If
gracious words and arguments do not improve the oppression and
distress, another form of non-violent reaction is recommended,
namely, emigration. According to the Qur'an: "He who forsakes his
home in the name of God, finds in the earth many refuge, wide and
spacious" (4:100). This emphasis on the importance of emigration
as a form of struggle is further clarified and emphasized in
relation to Judgment Day in the Qur'an: "Behold, those whom the
angels gather in death while they are still sinning against
themselves, [the angels] will ask 'what was wrong with you?' They
will answer: 'we were too weak and oppressed on earth'. [The
angels] will say 'was, then God's earth not wide enough for you to
forsake the domain of evil!'" (4: 47).
Once
the non-violent modes of struggle fail to eliminate tumult and
oppression, the Qur'an calls the "Prophet, [to] rouse the faithful
to arms" (8: 65), "Muster against them [the enemies] all the men
and cavalry at your disposal" (8: 60), and "turn them (the
enemies) out from where they turned you out" (2: 191). At this
stage of war, all Muslims are ordered to join the war in all their
capacities. According to the Qur'an: "fighting is obligatory for
you, much as you dislike it" (3: 200).
Islam
disallows conversion into the faith by force. The Qur'anic verse
says: "Let there be no compulsion in religion" (2:256). So the
idea of conversion by the sword is far away from the real truth.
Jihad is an Islamic concept that is more complex than "holy war".
To Table of Contents
Is Islam a Religion for Women?
A
systematic review of the Qur'an identifies twenty Surahs or
sections that address women directly(2).
The syntax of these Qur'anic Surahs is inclusive in its gender
base. Generally these Surahs use either the feminine or masculine
plural such as, "You men and women believers", or "al-insan" (the
Human). The problem, however, comes in the numerous translations
that most Americans read. Often these translated texts impose the
masculine "men" for lack of a good substitute or due to the
translator's own biases. Regardless, in Islam (and according to
Muslims) the Qur'an is a dictated book ( the words of God), and
the translations (into other languages) are not the Qur'an. The
Qur'anic Surahs addressing women generally regulate marriage,
divorce, inheritance, custody, sexual reproduction, adultery,
witnessing, veiling, and the status of women in relation to men.An
example of how the Qur'an specifically addresses women comes in
the following Ayah:
Lo! Men who
surrender to Allah and women who surrender, and men who believe
and women who believe, and men who obey and women who obey, and
men who speak the truth and women who speak the truth, and men who
persevere, and women who persevere, and men who are humble, and
women who are humble, and men who give alms and women who give
alms,and men who fast and women who fast, and men who guard their
modesty and women who guard their modesty, and men who remember
Allah, and women who remember Allah; Allah has prepared for them
forgiveness and vast reward (33:35) .
Also
in the Hadith, the text that contains the Prophet's sayings, women
are very much present. They transmitted the Prophet's sayings, and
their testimony was accepted. Among women who transmitted the
Hadith were the Prophet's wives Aisha and Mymonah, Asma (Aisha's
half sister), Khansa' (a renowned Poetess), Umm Kurz and Zynab,
the wives of renowned Muslims. The Hadiths told by these women
included the Prophet's reactions to the first revelation, hygienic
practices, praying, marriage, wills, inheritance, debts,
mortgages, gift giving, buying and selling, and divorce.
A
review of women's roles in early Islam offers evidence of women's
importance in the society. Women not only prayed in the mosques,
but they also led prayers. Ahmed (1986:689) notes that during the
Prophet's lifetime Um Warraka led prayers. After the Prophet's
death, Aisha and Umm Salma, his wives, also led prayers. Aisha,
the Prophet's wife, eulogized the third caliph, Uthman after his
assassination and called for his revenge in the mosque (Ahmed
1986:690). During early Islam women also participated in
activities such as wars. Asma, the daughter of Abu Bakr (the
Prophet's first Caliph and close friend) played an important role
in helping the Prophet and her father escape from Mecca to Medina
when the persecution of the Meccan tribes escalated in 622 C.E..
The Prophet's wife Aisha also fought the battle of the "camel"
during the rule of caliph Ali. Two of the Prophet's wives are
reported by Hadith (Bukhari 4:86) to have had their garments
tucked up during the Uhud battle and their ankles showing while
carrying water to those on the battle field (Ahmed 1986: 681).
To Table of Contents
Does Islam Prescribe Polygamy?
The
Qur'an describes in the following verse its instructions on
polygamy:
Marry women of
your choice, two, or three , or four. But if ye fear that ye shall
not be able to deal justly with them, then one. (94:3).
Such
a verse is often misquoted. Only the first part of it is repeated
without the second part where "fear to be just" is an important
directive. The Qur'an describes further the "fearto be just" by
saying:
Ye are never able
to be fair and just as between women. Even if it is your ardent
desire. (4:129)
The
famous Egyptian Imam, Sheikh Sharawi notes that Islam did not
permit polygamy, but guided it under the direction of justice. He
continues to say " if one cannot be just then do not marry more
than one" (n.d. 29).
Some
Muslim countries have also made polygamy illegal. Tunisia is the
most impressive example. In 1956 Tunisia revised it Personal
Status code of law according to "enlightened Sharia" and
prohibited polygamy.
To Table of Contents
Why Aren't You Veiled?
There
is considerable controversy surrounding Islam's view of veiling of
women. A number of religious men and Muslim states have
interpreted veiling as a must in Islam. In fact the
Qur'an and the Hadith have singled out the Prophet's wives in this
domain. One finds mention of veiling in three Qur'anic Surah's,
al- Maryam (19), al-Ahzab (33), and al-Nur (24). One of the
Surah's says: "When you ask for something from the Prophet's wives
ask behind a curtain (al-hijab) that is purer for your hearts and
for their hearts" (33:53). What is meant by hijab here is
questionable. According to Shalaq (1982) and Ashmawi (1994) it
means a curtain, a partition and not a black dress. It is argued
that this verse was revealed for the benefit of the Prophet's
wives in order to separate them from the other believers (Shalaq
1982; Ashmawi 1994), especially that the wives of the Prophet had
many people visit the house. Another verse in this Surah says: O
Prophet, tell thy wives and daughters and the believing women,
that they draw their veils close to them; so it is likelier they
will be known, and not hurt" (33:59). According to Ashmawi (1994)
this verse was revealed to the Prophet because women during the
time of the Prophet used to wear a headdress that would hang from
the back. So the verse came directing that the head dress should
hang from the front. Ashmawi argues, that such a request could be
a way in which the Qur'an aimed to distinguish Muslim women from
other women. A third verse in the Qur'an says: And say to the
believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their
modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments
except what appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over
their (pockets) " (24:31). In this verse Ashmawi argues that the
revelation was requesting that believing women should let their
headdress hang over the top of their dress to hide their bosoms, a
modest way of dress.
Veiling is also mentioned in the Qur'an in relation to the
immaculate conception of Jesus. The Surah says: "She (Miriam)
placed a hijab.. a veil (unlike others) then we sent her our angel
and he appeared before her as a man in all respects"(al-Maryam
19:17). Beyond these prescriptions the Qur'an mentions that women
should not exaggerate and display their beauty to men other than
those linked to them by blood, marriage, or as servants, and that
they should guard their private parts and throw a scarf (or veil)
over their bosoms. In the Hadith the reference to a woman covering
her head and face with a veil actually meant that the woman was
the Prophet's wife (Shalaq 1982, Ahmed 1986:682).
The
veil as the black dress we see worn today in the streets of Tehran
or in the villages of Morocco and Iraq was not prescribed in the
Qur'an. The veil, however, as a mode of dress was not a new custom
introduced by Islam to the area (Ahmed 1986:683). Certainly the
Byzantian women wore the veil to assert their social status, and
the Persian women who converted to Mazdism (better known as
Zoroastrians) wore the veil during their fire rituals to protect
the sacred fire from their impurities.
Islam, however, introduced "seclusion" as a new practice to Arabia
(Ahmed 1986:683). The Qur'an states, "O wives of the Prophet ye
are not like any of the other women ... and stay quietly in your
homes and make not dazzling display like that of the former time
of ignorance" (33:32-34). The context of this seclusion, should be
understood because it was directed immediately to the Prophet's
wives, and it was meant to protect the Prophet from any insults
such as sexual abuse of his wives (Ahmed 1986). It is important to
underscore this notion that seclusion as mentioned by the Qur'an
was addressing the Prophet's wives only, especially that they were
singled out by the Qur'an as "different" from other women (33:32),
and that the revelation caused a tense situation in which the
Prophet threatened mass divorce (Ahmed 1986: 684). This difference
between the Prophet's wives and other Muslim women is not,
however, absolute. It relates only to the potential for insulting
the Prophet indirectly through his relatives. Thus the Prophet's
wives were forbidden to remarry after the Prophet's death, and did
not inherit from him. Beyond these restrictions, the Prophet's
wives were similar to all Muslim and other believing women.
To Table of Contents
What is Islam's View on Population Control?
Fertility control(Tahdid al Nasl) is forbidden by the
Qur'an. Human reproduction is viewed as being a sign of God's
power and will. As a result humans should not interfere in the
natural cycle of fertility. One of the verses of the Qur'an
states: "And we cause who we will to rest in the Wombs" (22:5).
According to the Qur'an, God controls various aspects of human
fertility. The gender of the offspring is one of such aspects. The
Qur'an states: "He creates what He wills. He bestows male or
female. Or He bestows both males and females" (42:49-50). God also
controls the pregnancy in its various stages according to the
Qur'an: "He makes you in the wombs of your mothers in stages, one
after another" (39:6).
God's
might and power does not only forbid the control of fertility, but
encourages reproduction of children. The Qur'an says:" Money and
Children are the decoration of life" (18:46). The same theme about
fertility can be found in the Prophet's sayings: " An ugly woman
who is fertile is a better wife than a beauty who is barren".
To
control your fertility because of financial or material
constraints is forbidden behavior in Islam. The Qur'an clearly
states "the mothers shall suckle their offspring for two whole
years... and it is the father's responsibility to feed and dress
the children on equitable terms, no soul shall have a burden
laid on it greater than it can bear" (2:233 my emphasis). The
Qur'an also says: "Kill not your children for fear of want . . .
We will provide sustenance for them as well as for you . . .
Verily the Killing of them is a great sin" (17:31).
The
encouragement of fertility in Islamic texts is often explained as
arising from the demographic need to increase the number and
domain of the newly emerging religion (Ahmed 1986; Ammar 1993).
The Qur'an for example emphasizes this geographic concept of
population expansion by saying: " O human kind we created you from
a single (soul) of male and female, and made you into Nations and
Tribes that ye may know each other" (49:13). One of the Prophet's
Hadiths shows that the underlying reason behind the encouragement
of reproduction in Islam is to increase the population of the
community of believers in Islam. He said: "consummate marriages,
reproduce for I will take pride (in your numbers) on the Day of
Judgement".
It is
obligatory that reproduction and fertility in Islam take place
within the marriage institution. In Islam marriage is not a
religious sacrament, rather it is a legal contract that binds the
married pair to their offspring(s). This connection of offsprings
to their parents within the context of marriage is best
exemplified in the common practice of "no adoption in Islam". One
can nurture a child that is not his/her biological offspring, but
the child can never become legally adopted. The legal obligation
of bonding of the child to his/her parents in the context of
marriage is also exemplified by the Prophet's saying: " Who ever
holds illicit intercourse and the child is born illegitimate, the
child does not inherit nor is the child inherited".
The
strict condition of reproduction within the institution of legal
marriage in Islam is the result of the need to establish in Arabia
during the 7th Century a patrilineal tracing (a father connection)
of offsprings. Such a descent line enabled the emerging mercantile
society to pass on its newly accumulated wealth from one
generation to another (Ammar 1993: 19).
Fertility Control (Tahdid Al Nasl) Versus
Fertility Organization (Tanzim Al Nasl)
Muslim religious thinkers in the past quarter of a century have
made a distinction between fertility control (Tahdid Al Nasl)
and fertility regulation (Tanzim Al Nasl). Tahdid Al
Nasl refers to controlling fertility over the entire period of
a woman's reproductive years. This comprehensive, generalized
fertility control,Tahdid Al Nasl, is forbidden. On the
other hand to regulate fertility (Tanzim Al Nasl) to
strengthen a woman's health, or to suckle one child, or to care
for elderly parents or relatives is desirable and recommended. A
famous Egyptian religious leader, Imam Shaltout notes that
"individualistic fertility control is not against nature or God,
nor counter to national priorities, and is permitted and
encouraged by the Shariah (the law)" (1991:297). The
religious rules that encourage fertility regulation in Islam are
based on the general spirit of the Qur'an and the Prophet's Hadith
about Yasir wa la tua'sir: "facilitate and do not
complicate". He also said: "What is good for my people is law".
Fertility Organization:
Encouraged Methods Condoms, Diaphragms and Oral Contraception
The
use of condoms and diaphragms for organizing fertility in the
Islamic texts is clearly encouraged. The Prophet when asked about
the use of barriers (Al'Azil), said three times consecutively:
"and you shall use them"(3).
The encouragement and approval of the use of the barrier is based
primarily on the principle of non-interference with God's power of
creation. As a result to prevent fertility, humans shall do so
prior to the conception of life.
Beyond the use of the barrier (Al'azil), Islamic thought
varies in its interpretations concerning the use of other
fertility control methods. Some religious thinkers (e.g. Sha'rawi)
note that the use of the birth control pill and any other
pharmacological substance is forbidden. Other thinkers (e.g.
Shaltout, and Al Ghazali) note that oral contraception can be an
encouraged method of fertility organization, since the
contraceptive does not intervene directly with the conception of
life.
It is
important to note that irrespective of which of the
interpretations one "believes", it is essential to examine the use
of oral contraception from the Islamic view of "facilitating not
complicating" women's reproductive health. Oral contraception in
most Muslim countries is a major cause of health complications for
women over the age of 30. In my own research in a village in the
south of Egypt, I found that women's age was never considered when
prescribing oral contraception
(4). Instead doctors prescribe vitamin pills to assure women
that they are taking care of the oral contraception's side
effects. The contraceptive pills prescribed for the women of all
ages were high in their estrogen content
(5). Many women during my stay in the village complained to me
about irregular bleeding, pains in the rear of their legs, weight
gain, and severe headaches. The issue one needs to underscore is
if in the Islamic perspective the basis for encouraging fertility
organization is to care for the mother's health and well-being
then we need to ensure that Muslim women have access to oral
contraception brands similar to those available in Western
markets.
Abortion
In
Islam abortions are encouraged only if the pregnancy
threatens the well-being of the mother. It is forbidden to
sacrifice the mother's life for the fetus. Here again the practice
of abortion is prescribed with limitations. The soul in the
Islamic tradition develops after the fetus moves in the womb. The
distinction between movement and life in Islam is very clear. The
fetus moves, during the second trimester (precisely after 120 days
of pregnancy). Abortion, as a result, is permitted during the
first 120 days, i.e. before the soul develops.
Islam
like other Abrahamic faiths (Judaism and Christianity) addresses
the practice of fertility control. The texts are very clear about
encouraging the organization of fertility if it helps strengthen
women's health. The major problem, however, among most Muslim
women is not the Islamic prescriptions about fertility control,
but rather the level of development in their countries. In fact,
the social and material conditions of most Islamic countries
inhibit access and use of appropriate health and medical services
for women. In a recent UNICEF publication, Khattab (1992) notes
that women's reproductive health needs to be addressed
holistically, inter-linking physical, with social, psychological,
economic and political well being. Muslim women, in addition to
learning about their religion they need: 1. health professionals
that understand and respect their life conditions; 2. sex
education; and 3. a re-examining of the external cultural and
material systems that inhibit women's access to health services (Khattab
1992:5).
To Table of Contents
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Summary
It is
difficult to discuss Muslim women's lives as if they were a
monolithic entity living under the same social, economic and
political conditions. It is, however, possible to examine the
religious tenets of Islam as something all Muslim women share
together.
Islam
sees Jihad as a total way of life and not just as holy war. In
fact Islam considers Jihad meaning exerting effort towards piety,
hard work and achievement as the major part of a Muslim's life.
Muslim women within this meaning of "Jihad" ought to participate
and fulfill their religious duty.
Islam
sees Muslim women as part and parcel of the religious message.
They are included in the revelations. They have privileges and
responsibilities. The Qur'an dictates that the penalties imposed
on women are no less than those imposed on men (5:41, 24:2).
Muslim women are not as oppressed as some interpretations show
them to be. Actually an accurate look at the Qur'anic directives
and legal rights shows that polygamy is regulated in such a way
that it could be very difficult to justify marrying more than one
woman most of the time. While the veiling of Muslim women is not
so clearly enforced as one is commonly lead to believe from the
images in Iran.
With
regard to fertility control, Islam forbids it as a life time
practice to stop women's reproduction during their child bearing
years. The texts clearly encourage fertility within the marriage
institution as a decorative, and appealing practice in life.
Islamic scholars, however, make a distinction between fertility
control (Tahdid Al Nasl) as a life time halting of
reproduction and fertility organization (Tanzim Al-Nasl) as
temporary planning of fertility. Tanzim Al Nasl is
encouraged if the mother's health and well-being is at risk. The
use of one fertility control method is clearly encouraged in
Islam, the 'Azil (condom/diaphragm). Some, but not all,
Islamic scholars view the use of the oral pill as an encouraged
method. Other methods of fertility control that intervene with the
natural cycle of reproduction or that are permanent are forbidden.
Abortion is encouraged in the Islamic texts if the mother's health
or well-being at risk. It is, however, permitted only during the
first 120 days.
To Table of Contents
Bibliography
Ammar, N. 1993 "Women In Islam". The Chicago
Theological Seminary Register. Winter-Spring
1993, Vol. LXXXIII, No.1 and 2. PP.16-27.
Ammar, N. 1980 "Islam: A Religion and a Way of
Life." Salford University, England, A Bachelor's
Honours Dissertation.
Ahmed, L. 1986 "Women and the Advent of Islam"
Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society
Vol. 11, no.4, 665-690.
Ashmawi, S. 1994 Al-Hijab Lays Farida Islamiah.
(The Hijab is not an Islamic Duty)
Rose El Youssef No. 3444 13-6-1994 PP.22-25.
al-Faruqi, I. and Lois Lamya al- Faruqi
1986 The Cultural Atlas of Islam. New York:
Macmillan Publishing Company.
Fellows, W. 1979 Religions East and West. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, Inc.
Khattab, H. 1992 "The Silent Endurance: Social
Conditions of Women's reproductive health in rural
Egypt". Edited by Gillian Potter. Cairo: Nour Arab
Publishing House.
UNICEF:POPULATION COUNCIL.
Shaltout, M. 1991 Alfatawi (Interpretations). Cairo: Dar al-Sharq.
Sahrawi, M. M. n.d. al-Mara' Wa al-Rajul Wa Khosum
al-Islam. (The Woman and The Man and The
Enemies of Islam. Dar El-Nadwah. Alexandria: Egypt.
Notes
(1)
Qura'nic verses are followed by two sets of numbers for example
(39:27). These refer to the Chapter (Surah) and the verse (Ayah).
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(2)
These include: Baqarah (Surah 2), Al Imran (Surah 3), Al-Nisa (Surah
4), Al Maidah (Surah 5),
Al Anam (Surah 6), Al Isra (Surah 17), Al Maryam (Surah 19), Al
Hajj (Surah 22), Al Muminun (Surah 23), Al Nur (Surah 24), Al Rum
(Surah 30), Al Ahzab (Surah 33), Al Saffat (Surah 37), Gafir (Surah
40), Al
Hujurat (Surah 49), Al Najm (Surah 53), Al Mummtahinah (Surah 60),
Al Talaq (Surah 65), Al Mudathir (Surah 74), Al'Alaq (Surah 96).
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(3)
In Islam repeating something for three times means one is
convinced of what he/she is saying. In the case of the Prophet's
Hadith it means that there is no room for reinterpretation.
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(4) I
concluded dissertation research between 1986-1987 in a village in
the south of Egypt. The dissertation was entitled: "An Egyptian
Village Growing UP: Silwa the governate of Aswan", University of
Florida, August 1988.
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(5)
Such pills flooded the market, and were sold at a subsidized price
of less than .089 American cents. The brand names of such pills
included Anovlar, Nordet, and Primovlar.
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